<font face="Arial">Read before Thursday's Class. (should take less than an hour)</font><p><font face="Arial"><br></font></p><h3 dir="ltr"><span>Lesson 9 - The Vikings</span></h3><h4 dir="ltr"><span>Definitions</span></h4><p dir="ltr"><span>Viking:</span><span> </span><span>any of the Scandinavian seafaring pirates and traders who raided and settled in many parts of northwestern Europe in the 8th&#8211;11th centuries.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Norsemen: </span><span>any of the ancient Scandinavians.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Generic</span><span>: </span><span>characteristic of or relating to a class or group of things; not specific.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Petroglyphs:</span><span> </span><span>a rock carving, especially a prehistoric one.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Nordic:</span><span> </span><span>relating to Scandinavia, Finland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Fjord:</span><span> </span><span>a long, narrow, deep inlet of the sea between high cliffs, as in Norway and Iceland, typically formed by submergence of a glaciated valle</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Danelaw:</span><span> </span><span>The Danelaw was the part of England in which the laws of the Danes held sway and dominated those of the Anglo-Saxons.&#160;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Danes</span><span>: </span><span>a native or inhabitant of Denmark, or a person of Danish descent.</span><span>, or </span><span>one of the Viking invaders of the British Isles in the 9th&#8211;11th centuries.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Thralls: </span><span>a slave, servant, or captive.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Reeve:</span><span> </span><span>a local official, in particular the chief magistrate of a town or district in Anglo-Saxon England.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Fief:</span><span> </span><span>an estate of land, especially one held on condition of feudal service.</span></p><h4 dir="ltr"><span>Map of scandinavia </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Scandinavia#/media/File:1730_Homann_Map_of_Scandinavia,_Norway,_Sweden,_Denmark,_Finland_and_the_Baltics_-_Geographicus_-_Scandinavia-homann-1730.jpg"><span>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Scandinavia#/media/File:1730_Homann_Map_of_Scandinavia,_Norway,_Sweden,_Denmark,_Finland_and_the_Baltics_-_Geographicus_-_Scandinavia-homann-1730.jpg</span></a></h4><p dir="ltr"><span><span></span></span></p><p><b><br></b></p><h4 dir="ltr"><span>Viking vs. Norsemen</span></h4><p dir="ltr"><span>Viking</span><span> is the name given to seafaring Norse pirates from Scandinavia. Scandinavia consists mostly of present day Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The main difference between Vikings and </span><span>Norsemen</span><span> is explained in the etymology of the words:&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>&#8220;Vikings didn't call themselves &#8220;Vikings,&#8221; as this term doesn't apply to any specific group or tribe of people... The word viking meant &#8220;piracy&#8221; or &#8220;freebooting voyage&#8221; in Old Norse and was something one would do, rather than a personal descriptor&#8212;&#8221;go on a viking.&#8221; (Britannica)&#160; In short, The term viking was a verb, which meant to go raiding.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Norsemen literally means North-men.&#160; Today the term means &#8220;any of the ancient Scandinavians. Scandanavians consisted of three main people groups who are the Danes, the Norweigens&#160; and the Swedes. These terms were used in the </span><span>generic</span><span> tense and interchangeably by outsiders to refer to all northern invaders. Mostly, they are all called danes, and eventually, formed a unified Danish kingdom.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>In short, Viking seems to have been synonymous with piracy whereas the same tribal members who stayed home were considered Norse.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><h4 dir="ltr"><span>Background:&#160;&#160;</span></h4><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Before we jump into post-classical time with this group of people, we need a little background information.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>The Norse countries spent the stone age under a sheet of ice. For this reason, little evidence remains in Scandinavia from the stone age through the iron age except limited numbers of tools, some jewelry and ornaments, and stone burial cairns. It seems the Bronze Age may have been a very special time for Scandinavians from Norway, Denmark and Sweden. While the Bronze Age is generally considered to have been around 3700 years ago, and lasted until 2500 years ago, the Viking Bronze Age lasted only a few hundred years, from around 800 - 1050 CE.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>&#160;Archaeologists have observed ships, houses, weapons, clothing and other items from long ago look very much like similar objects from the Viking Age. While others used bronze and gold when they needed metal, the Vikings also used iron. The culture of shipping, trade, animals, farms, violence, looting, the construction of large burial mounds, and large-scale sacrifices involving jewelry and weapons from the Bronze Age, are surprisingly similar to what the Vikings were doing.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>&#160;The most interesting thing we have found from this period is a collection of stone drawings known as </span><span>petroglyphs</span><span> which feature drawings of large, sophisticated longboats, from a much earlier time period than suspected. (Does anyone remember suggestions of boat people from the north possibly causing the fall of the bronze age?) As the Bronze age progressed, ships grew smaller with fewer crew members. Especially from the iron age to Roman times.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Historically, the North-men lived in dense populations along the coasts and the interior of the countries were wooded. By 500BCE, there is evidence of trading with many cultures such as their Mycenae neighbors, and as far as Babylon and Egypt. Bronze age </span><span>Nordic </span><span>items have been found in all of these regions. Interestingly, while there is no written language, their society seems to have survived the bronze age collapse of other regions. Due to the population crunch, the constant raiding of one&#8217;s neighbors became a way of life, and this is how the Norsemen (though not all) became Vikings. Raiding also paid off substantially. Eventually, countries started paying them off to not raid and loot, making their jobs easier... unless they decided to raid the territory anyway.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br><br></b></p><h4 dir="ltr"><span><span></span></span></h4><h4 dir="ltr"><span>Norse Mythology</span></h4><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Before the Norse were converted to Christianity, they followed their native pagan beliefs. &#8220;Norse mythology&#8221; were considered religious stories that gave meaning to the lives of the people. Norse myths revolved around gods and goddesses&#160; like Odin, Thor, Freya, and Loki and others. The religion never had an actual name, it was merely &#8220;tradition.&#8221; However, those who wished to convert them to Christianity called them &#8220;heathens,&#8221; which simply meant &#8220;people who live on the heaths&#8221; (in the countryside), and so the name stuck.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Even though some aspects of Norse mythology may&#160; seem bizarre, we can see the common human quest to live life in the presence of the sacred. Norse mythology is so fascinating, in fact that over a thousand years later people continue to be inspired by the vitality and wonder of the Norse myths in modern day comic books, and movies.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>The Vikings did not seek salvation in their religion,&#160; but they saw the world as enchanted &#8211; to be delighted in, and marveled at. Their beliefs didn&#8217;t sugarcoat the difficulties of earthly life, but acknowledged it and praised the attempt to master it through great deeds for the benefit of oneself and one&#8217;s people.&#160; This was &#8220;the good life&#8221; for the Vikings.</span></p><p><b><br><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Norse mythology was wild&#8230; and raucous, and sometimes funny. Norse Mythology doesn&#8217;t necessarily belong to Scandinavia but has roots in the religion and mythology of Germanic people who migrated into Europe. The Romans later translated Germanic gods into their own beliefs, which is why we have the overlap of characters such as:</span></p><ul><li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation"><span>&#160;Wotan (or Wodan or Odin)&#160; who became associated with mercury</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation"><span>Tyr (or Tiwas), a warrior god became the Roman god of war- Mars</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation"><span>Thor who was Jupiter or Jove.&#160;</span></p></li></ul><p><b><br><span><br></span></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Parts:&#160;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Vingthor</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Loki</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Freyia</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Thrym</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Jotun</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Heimdal</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Maid</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Jotun&#8217;s sister</span><span><br></span></p><p><b><br></b></p><h5 dir="ltr"><span>THE LAY OF THRYM, OR THE HAMMER RECOVERED.&#160;</span></h5><p dir="ltr"><span>(This is the tale of how Loki helps Thor recover his stolen hammer)</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: Wroth was Vingthor, when he awoke, and his hammer missed; his beard he shook, his forehead struck, the son of earth felt all around him; And first of all these words he uttered:&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Vingthor: &#34;Hear now, Loki! what I now say, which no one knows anywhere on earth, nor in heaven above; the As's hammer is stolen!&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: They went to the fair Freyia's dwelling, and he these words first of all said:&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Vingthor: &#34;Wilt thou me, Freyia, thy feather-garment lend, that perchance my hammer I may find?&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Freyia: &#34;That I would give thee, although of gold it were, and trust it to thee, though it were of silver.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: Flew then Loki&#8212;the plumage rattled&#8212;until he came beyond the &#198;sir's dwellings, and came within the Jotun's land. On a mound sat Thrym, the Thursar's lord, for his greyhounds plaiting gold bands and his horses' manes smoothing.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Thrym: &#34;How goes it with the &#198;sir? How goes it with the Alfar? Why art thou come alone to Jotunheim?&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Loki: &#34;Ill it goes with the &#198;sir, Ill it goes with the Alfar. Hast thou Hlorridi's hammer hidden?&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Thrym: &#34;I have Hlorridi's hammer hidden eight rasts beneath the earth; it shall no man get again, unless he bring me Freyia to wife.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: Flew then Loki&#8212;the plumage rattled&#8212;until he came beyond the Jotun's dwellings, and came within the &#198;sir's courts; there he met Thor, in the middle court, who these words first of all uttered.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Jotun: &#34;Hast thou had success as well as labour? Tell me from the air the long tidings. Oft of him who sits are the tales defective, and he who lies down utters falsehood.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Loki:&#160; &#34;I have had labour and success: Thrym has thy hammer, the Thursar's lord. It shall no man get again, unless he bring him Freyia to wife.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: They went the fair Freyia to find; and he those words first of all said:</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Loki:&#160; &#34;Bind thee, Freyia, in bridal raiment, we two must drive to Jotunheim.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: Wroth then was Freyia, and with anger chafed, all the &#198;sir's hall beneath her trembled: in shivers flew the famed Brisinga necklace.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Freyia &#34;Know me to be of women lewdest, if with thee I drive to Jotunheim.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: Straightway went the &#198;sir all to council, and the Asyniur all to hold converse; and deliberated the mighty gods, how they Hlorridi's hammer might get back. Then said Heimdall, of &#198;sir brightest&#8212;he well foresaw, like other Vanir&#8212;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Heimdall: &#34;Let us clothe Thor with bridal raiment, let him have the famed Brisinga necklace.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>&#34;Let by his side keys jingle, and woman's weeds fall round his knees, but on his breast place precious stones, and a neat coif set on his head.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: Then said Thor, the mighty As:&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Thor: &#34;Me the &#198;sir will call womanish, if I let myself be clad in bridal raiment.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Loki: &#34;Do thou, Thor! refrain from suchlike words: forthwith the Jotuns will Asgard inhabit, unless thy hammer thou gettest back.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: Then they clad Thor in bridal raiment, and with the noble Brisinga necklace, let by his side keys jingle, and woman's weeds fall round his knees; and on his breast placed precious stones, and a neat coif set on his head. Then said Loki, Laufey's son:&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Loki: &#34;I will with thee as a servant go: we two will drive to Jotunheim.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: Straightway were the goats homeward driven, hurried to the traces; they had fast to run. The rocks were shivered, the earth was in a blaze; Odin's son drove to Jotunheim.&#160;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Then said Thrym, the Thursar's lord:&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Thrym: &#34;Rise up, Jotuns! and the benches deck, now they bring me Freyia to wife, Niord's daughter, from Noatun. &#34;Hither to our court let bring gold-horned cows, all-black oxen, for the Jotuns' joy. Treasures I have many, necklaces many, Freyia alone seemed to me wanting.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: In the evening they early came, and for the Jotuns beer was brought forth. Thor alone an ox devoured, salmons eight, and all the sweetmeats women should have. Sif's consort drank three salds of mead. Then said Thrym, the Thursar's prince:&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Thrym: &#34;Where hast thou seen brides eat more voraciously? I never saw brides feed more amply, nor a maiden drink more mead.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: Sat the all-crafty serving-maid close by, who words fitting found against the Jotun's speech:&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Maid: &#34;Freyia has nothing eaten for eight nights, so eager was she for Jotunheim.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Thrym: Under her veil he stooped desirous to salute her, but sprang back along the hall. &#34;Why are so piercing Freyia's looks? Methinks that fire burns from her eyes.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: Sat the all-crafty serving-maid close by, who words fitting found against the Jotun's speech:&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Maid: &#34;Freyia for eight nights has not slept, so eager was she for Jotunheim.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: In came the Jotun's luckless sister, for a bride-gift she dared to ask:&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Jotun&#8217;s sister: &#34;Give me from thy hands the ruddy rings, if thou wouldst gain my love, my love and favour all.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: Then said Thrym, the Thursar's lord:&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Thrym: &#34;Bring the hammer in, the bride to consecrate; lay Miollnir on the maiden's knee; unite us each with other by the hand of Vor.&#34;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Narrator: Laughed Hlorridi's soul in his breast, when the fierce-hearted his hammer recognized. He first slew Thrym, the Thursar's lord, and the Jotun's race all crushed;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>He slew the Jotun's aged sister, her who a bride-gift had demanded; she a blow got instead of skillings, a hammer's stroke for many rings. So got Odin's son his hammer back.</span></p><p><b><br><br></b></p><h5 dir="ltr"><span>THE CREATION OF THE WORLD</span></h5><p dir="ltr"><span>(This Norse creation story is from a text called the Prose Edda, which is a retelling of Norse Myths written at a later time by Christians, and they show heavy Christian Influence)</span></p><p><b><br><br><span><br></span></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Parts:&#160;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Ganglere</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Har</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Jafenhar</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Gandrad</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Thride</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Aurgelmer</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Audhumbla</span><span><br></span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Said Ganglere: How came the world into existence, or how did it rise? What was before? Made answer to him Har: Thus is it said in the Vala&#8217;s Prophecy:</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>It was Time&#8217;s morning,</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>When there nothing was;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Nor sand, nor sea,</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Nor cooling billows.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Earth there was not,</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Nor heaven above.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>The Ginungagap was,</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>But grass nowhere.</span><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/18947/18947-h/18947-h.htm#note12"><span>12</span></a></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Jafnhar remarked: Many ages before the earth was made, Niflheim had existed, in the midst of which is the well called Hvergelmer, whence flow the following streams: Svol, Gunnthro, Form, Fimbul, Thul, Slid and Hrid, Sylg and Ylg, Vid, Leipt and Gjoll, the last of which is nearest the gate of Hel. Then added Thride: Still there was before a world to the south which hight Muspelheim. It is light and hot, and so bright and dazzling that no stranger, who is not a native there, can stand it. Surt is the name of him who stands on its border guarding it. He has a flaming sword in his hand, and at the end of the world he will come and harry, conquer all the gods, and burn up the whole world with fire. Thus it is said in the Vala&#8217;s Prophecy:</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Surt from the south fares</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>With blazing flames;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>From the sword shines</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>The sun of the war-god.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Rocks dash together</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>And witches collapse,</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Men go the way to Hel</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>And the heavens are cleft.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Said Ganglere: What took place before the races came into existence, and men increased and multiplied?&#160;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Replied Har, explaining, that as soon as the streams, that are called the Elivogs, had come so far from their source that the venomous yeast which flowed with them hardened, as does dross that runs from the fire, then it turned into ice. And when this ice stopped and flowed no more, then gathered over it the drizzling rain that arose from the venom and froze into rime, and one layer of ice was laid upon the other clear into Ginungagap.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Then said Jafnhar: All that part of Ginungagap that turns toward the north was filled with thick and heavy ice and rime, and everywhere within were drizzling rains and gusts. But the south part of Ginungagap was lighted up by the glowing sparks that flew out of Muspelheim.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Added Thride: As cold and all things grim proceeded from Niflheim, so that which bordered on Muspelheim was hot and bright, and Ginungagap was as warm and mild as windless air. And when the heated blasts from Muspelheim met the rime, so that it melted into drops, then, by the might of him who sent the heat, the drops quickened into life and took the likeness of a man, who got the name Ymer. But the Frost giants call him Aurgelmer. Thus it is said in the short Prophecy of the Vala (the Lay of Hyndla):</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>All the valas are</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>From Vidolf descended;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>All wizards are</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Of Vilmeide&#8217;s race;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>All enchanters</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Are sons of Svarthofde;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>All giants have</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Come from Ymer.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>And on this point, when Vafthrudner, the giant, was asked by Gangrad:</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Whence came Aurgelmer</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Originally to the sons</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Of the giants?&#8212;thou wise giant!</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>59</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>(Aurgelmer) He said</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>From the Elivogs</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Sprang drops of venom,</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>And grew till a giant was made.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Thence our race</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Are all descended,</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Therefore are we all so fierce.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Then asked Ganglere: How were the races developed from him? Or what was done so that more men were made? Or do you believe him to be god of whom you now spake?&#160;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Made answer Har: By no means do we believe him to be god; evil was he and all his offspring, them we call frost-giants. It is said that when he slept he fell into a sweat, and then there grew under his left arm a man and a woman, and one of his feet begat with the other a son. From these come the races that are called frost-giants. The old frost-giant we call Ymer.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Then said Ganglere: Where did Ymer dwell, and on what did he live?&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Answered Har: The next thing was that when the rime melted into drops, there was made thereof a cow, which hight Audhumbla. Four milk-streams ran from her teats, and she fed Ymer.&#160;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>(Audhumbla) Thereupon asked Ganglere: On what did the cow subsist?&#160;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Answered Har: She licked the salt-stones that were covered with rime, and the first day that she licked the stones there came out of them in the evening a man&#8217;s hair, the second day a man&#8217;s head, and the third day the whole man was there. This man&#8217;s name was Bure; he was fair of face, great and mighty, and he begat a son whose name was Bor. This Bor married a woman whose name was Bestla, the daughter of the giant Bolthorn; they had three sons,&#8212;the one hight Odin, the other Vile, and the third Ve. And it is my belief that this Odin and his brothers are the rulers of heaven and earth. We think that he must be so called. That is the name of the man whom we know to be the greatest and most famous, and well may men call him by that name.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Ganglere asked: How could these keep peace with Ymer, or who was the stronger?</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Then answered Har: The sons of Bor slew the giant Ymer, but when he fell, there flowed so much blood from his wounds that they drowned therein the whole race of frost giants; excepting one, who escaped with his household. Him the giants call Bergelmer. He and his wife went on board his ark and saved themselves in it. From them are come new races of frost-giants, as is here said:</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Countless winters</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Ere the earth was made,</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Was born Bergelmer.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>This first I call to mind</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>How that crafty giant</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Safe in his ark lay.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Then said Ganglere: What was done then by the sons of Bor, since you believe that they were gods?&#160;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Answered Har: About that there is not a little to be said. They took the body of Ymer, carried it into the midst of Ginungagap and made of him the earth. Of his blood they made the seas and lakes; of his flesh the earth was made, but of his bones the rocks; of his teeth and jaws, and of the bones that were broken, they made stones and pebbles.&#160;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Jafnhar remarked: Of the blood that flowed from the wounds, and was free, they made the ocean; they fastened the earth together and around it they laid this ocean in a ring without, and it must seem to most men impossible to cross it.&#160;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Thride added: They took his skull and made thereof the sky, and raised it over the earth with four sides. Under each corner they set a dwarf, and the four dwarfs were called Austre (east), Vestre (West), Nordre (North), Sudre (South). Then they took glowing sparks, that were loose and had been cast out from Muspelheim, and placed them in the midst of the boundless heaven, both above and below, to light up heaven and earth. They gave resting-places to all fires, and set some in heaven; some were made to go free under heaven, but they gave them a place and shaped their course. In old songs it is said that from that time days and years were reckoned. Thus in the Prophecy of the Vala:</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>The sun knew not</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Where her hall she had;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>The moon knew not</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>What might he had;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>The stars knew not</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Their resting-places.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Thus it was before these things were made.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Then said Ganglere: Wonderful tidings are these I now hear; a wondrous great building is this, and deftly constructed. How was the earth fashioned?&#160;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Made answer Har: The earth is round, and without it round about lies the deep ocean, and along the outer strand of that sea they gave lands for the giant races to dwell in; and against the attack of restless giants they built a burg within the sea and around the earth. For this purpose they used the giant Ymer&#8217;s eyebrows, and they called the burg Midgard. They also took his brains and cast them into the air, and made therefrom the clouds, as is here said:</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>63</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Of Ymer&#8217;s flesh</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>The earth was made,</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>And of his sweat the seas;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Rocks of his bones,</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Trees of his hair,</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>And the sky of his skull;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>But of his eyebrows</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>The blithe powers</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Made Midgard for the sons of men.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Of his brains</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>All the melancholy</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Clouds were made.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><h4 dir="ltr"><span>Various Viking Tribes</span></h4><h4 dir="ltr"><span>Danish Vikings - Raids on Britain&#160;</span></h4><p dir="ltr"><span>The Danes were a North Germanic tribe from southern Scandinavia, including the area of Denmark, and modern-day southern Sweden, during the Nordic Iron Age and the Viking Age. They founded the Kingdom of Denmark. The Danes are first mentioned in writing 551 CE, by Procopius, and by Gregory of Tours. They spoke Old Norse and were of the same stock as the Swedes. The Old English poems Widsith and Beowulf, as well as works by later Scandinavian writers reference the Danes who get their name from the mythical King Dan.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Starting in the 8th century CE., the Danes built trading towns across their territory such as Hedeby, Ribe, Aarhus and Viborg and expanded the settlements of Odense and Aalborg. Hedeby, described as &#8220; a very large city at the very end of the world's ocean&#8221; was the largest in Scandinavia until it&#8217;s destruction in 1066. In 786, the Danes landed three Viking ships at Port of Dorset in the British Isles where they killed a local reeve and his men. They also raided and built a permanent camp on the Isle of Sheppey in south east England. The area was settled in 865, by brothers Halfdan Ragnarsson and Ivar the Boneless.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>One of the first raids was against Lindisfarne in 793 and is considered the beginning of the Viking Age. It was an especially brutal attack on a Christian monastery where, in addition to looting, the monks were killed and enslaved in order to procure thralls, who they brought to the Norwegian farms to work them while the men were at sea. In 800 CE, the Danes began raiding towns along the coasts and rivers of Europe, often settling the area. Danelaw was a large settlement due to the abundant farmland settlement. They also established towns in Ireland, the Netherlands and northern France. In the early 11th century, King Cnut the Great ruled the North Sea Empire for nearly 20 years, which included Denmark, England, Norway, southern Sweden and parts of northern Germany.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Danes plundered Frisia, (which was under Frank rule) in 800 CE, and the trade town of Dorestad became a frequent target. In the mid-9th century, the Danish chieftain of Roric established a fief there. It is possible that the Danes were also in Frisia at the Gregory of Tours (538-594) as it is believed that king Chlochilaichus was killed during an invasion.&#160;&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>In the early 900's, Vikings established an encampment in the lower Seine river around Rouen. To stop the repeated raids, Charles the Simple made a treaty in Saint-Clair-sur-Epte with the Viking chieftain of Rollo granting him and his men authority over modern day Normandy.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br><br><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Swedish Vikings - </span><span>(Keiven Ruis)</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Around 840 CE the &#8220;Varangians&#8221; or &#8220;Rus&#8221; established Viking rule over Slavic tribes in what came to be called Kievan Rus. The Kievan Rus formed a federation of East Slavic and Finno-Ugric people under the reign of the Rurik dynasty, under Varangian prince Rurik. They lived in the modern nations of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine (Belarus and Russia derive) their names from it. Prince Oleg (879&#8211;912), the first ruler, extended control from Novgorod south along the Dnieper river valley, Kiev. Sviatoslav I (945-972) achieved the first major expansion of territory by defeating the Turks. Vladimir the Great (980&#8211;1015) introduced Christianity with his own baptism and, which all were decreed to accept themselves. Kievan Rus' reached its height under Yaroslav the Wise (1019&#8211;1054) with his sons assembling its first written legal code.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>The state began to decline during the late 11th century and the 12th century, disintegrating into rival regional powers, weakened by economic factors, loss of ties to the Byzantine Empire, and the diminution of trade routes through its territory. The state finally fell to the Mongol invasion of the 1240s. Still, the Rurik Dynasty ruled over parts of Russia for 21 generations and 700 years until the death of Tsar Vasili IV of Russia in 1612.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Norwegian Vikings - Orkney Islands, the Faroe Islands, and Iceland&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>The Vikings' conquered areas along the Norwegian coast, westward to Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Shetland, Orkney, Scotland, Ireland, and Greenland. They also reached the American continent, long before Columbus. Because there was not suitable land in Western Norway, the Norwegians colonized parts of&#160; Shetland, Orkney, the Faroe Islands and the Hebrides, which became the Kingdom of the Isles. While the Faroe Islands may not have been inhabited when the Norwegians arrived, there is evidence of people groups existing prior to that time. The settlers probably did not come directly from Scandinavia, but rather from communities around the Irish Sea, Northern Isles, and Outer Hebrides of Scotland. Norwegian Vikings also settled on the east coast of Ireland around 800 CE., founding the city of Dublin. Their arrival caused Celtic kings to ally, and by 900 they drove them back out. Harald Fairhair&#160; unified Norway after entering into an alliance with the Earls of Lade&#160; after the Battle of Hafrsfjord (circa 870&#8211;900). Iceland, being uninhabited, was discovered by Norwegians during the late 9th century, by 930 CE., the island had been divided among 400 Norse chieftains.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br><br><br><br></b></p><h4 dir="ltr"><span>Legendary Voyages</span></h4><p dir="ltr"><span>Gr&#230;nlendinga saga (&#8220;Saga of the Greenlanders&#8221;) and Eir&#237;ks saga rau&#240;a (&#8220;Erik the Red&#8217;s Saga&#8221;). These slightly different Norse sagas contain the most detailed information about The Viking visits to Vinland.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Gutenberg, public domain links:&#160;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Erik the Red&#8217;s Saga</span></p><p dir="ltr"><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17946/17946-h/17946-h.htm"><span>https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17946/17946-h/17946-h.htm</span></a><span>&#160;&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><h4 dir="ltr"><span>Erik the Red</span></h4><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>A series of events led to Erik the Red&#8217;s banishment from Iceland. First several of Erik&#8217;s thralls accidentally triggered a landslide crushing his neighbor&#8217;s house.&#160; Later he killed a man&#8217;s sons in a fight to recover his property. Tired of being punished for these unfortunate incidents, he sailed for Greenland.&#160;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Discovered 100 years earlier by Norwegian sailor Gunnbj&#246;rn Ulfsson, he sailed 900 nautical miles to the large landmass that seemed like a good place to settle. Arriving at Tunulliarfik around 983 CE. Erik spent two years exploring the territory, naming places with derivatives of his own name, and finally deciding he would stay in Greenland (which he also named to make it sound enticing) and raise livestock.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>He returned to Iceland in 985, and convinced several hundred people that Greenland held great promise, and led 25 ships and more than 400 people to Greenland. Several ships turned back, and some were lost, but 14 arrived, and the pilgrims established the Eastern Settlement (or Eystribygg&#240;) and the Western Settlement (or Vestribygg&#240;), and a few smaller settlements. Finally settled, Erik the Red lived like a lord with his wife and children. While the settlements survived a deadly epidemic, they never grew to more than 2,500&#8211;5,000 people. The colonies eventually died out around the time of Columbus. It is believed that Erik died soon after the year 1000 from injuries sustained after falling off a horse.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br><br></b></p><h4 dir="ltr"><span>Lief Eriksson&#160;</span></h4><p dir="ltr"><span>Leif Erikson, the son of Erik the Red, sailed to Norway around 1000 CE., where King Olaf I converted him to Christianity. Some believe Erikson sailed off course on his way back to Greenland and landed on the North American continent, where he explored a region he called Vinland. After spending the winter there, Leif sailed back to Greenland, and never returned. He is generally believed to be the first European to reach the North American continent, nearly four centuries before Christopher Columbus arrived in 1492.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>What happened next is up for debate. According to the Eiriks saga, Erikson sailed off course on his return to Greenland and landed in North America. He called the region Vinland after the wild grapes that grew there and the general fertility of the land. Another Icelandic saga, the Groenlandia saga (or &#8220;Saga of the Greenlanders''), which scholars consider more reliable,holds that Leif Erikson heard about Vinland from the Icelandic trader Bjarni Herjulfsson, who had sighted the North American continent from his ship 14 years before Leif&#8217;s voyage.&#160; Additionally,&#160; the exact location he landed in is in doubt. The Sagas identify different and multiple stopping points, but to date archeological proof only points to Newfoundland (Canada).</span></p><p><b><br><br></b></p><h4 dir="ltr"><span>The Norman Settlement</span></h4><p dir="ltr"><span>The Normans were a group of Norsemen who settled in northern France and founded the duchy of Normandy, sending out expeditions to southern Italy, Sicily, England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. These were originally pagan barbarian pirates from Denmark, Norway, and Iceland plundered and raided European coastal settlements in the 8th century. During the 9th century their raids grew in scale and frequency until the Vikings secured a permanent foothold on Frankish soil in the valley of the lower Seine River by about 900.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>In 911 the Frankish King Charles III (the Simple) made the Treaty of St. Clair-sur-Epte with a Viking leader named Rollo, ceding him the land around the mouth of the Seine, in modern day Rouen. This Viking group came to be known as the Normans and extended their rule westward to the districts of Lower Normandy. The Normans were ruthless forceful, over the population until the 11th century. From their position, they were able to embark on expansion-seeking campaigns throughout Europe. The most impactful campaign resulted in the conquest over England in 1066 by Willian who became King of England during the Norman Conquest.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br><br></b></p><h4 dir="ltr"><span>Harold Bluetooth</span></h4><p dir="ltr"><span>Harald &#34;Bluetooth&#34; Gormsson was a king of Denmark and Norway. He was the son of King Gorm the Old and of Thyra Dannebod. Harald &#34;Bluetooth&#34; Gormsson ruled as king of Denmark from 958 &#8211; 986. Harald introduced Christianity to Denmark and consolidated his rule over most of Jutland and Zealand. Harald was the son of King Gorm the Old of Denmark and his successor after his father&#8217;s death in c.958. He inherited the lands we consider to be modern day Denmark, and surrounding territories.&#160;</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>His reign of Denmark ended in 986 as it seems he was forcibly removed from the throne by his son and successor Sweyn (Sven) Forkbeard. Sweyn would become the first Danish king to make major inroads in the British Isles, and first Viking to be crowned King of England in 1013. Still, Harald is recognized as one of Denmark&#8217;s most important kings due to converting to Christianity.&#160;</span></p><p><b><br><br></b></p><h4 dir="ltr"><span>Burial:&#160;</span></h4><p dir="ltr"><span>Vikings were sent to the afterlife either through cremation or burial. Cremation was often carried out upon a funeral pyre which was particularly common in earlier times as they believed the fire&#8217;s smoke would carry the deceased to their afterlife. Once cremated, the remains also might be buried in an urn.</span></p><p dir="ltr"><span>For those who were buried, with or without prior cremation, they could be placed in shallow graves, often used for women and children, or in burial mounds that could hold multiple bodies. There were also groups of mounds or (grave fields) that were like modern day cemeteries.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Because the boats symbolized safe passage into the afterlife they played a key role in funeral rituals. Some grave mounds were built to resemble ships, with stones outlining the shape of a vessel. High-ranked Norsemen were buried with their actual boats. But contrary to popular belief, these funeral boats were rarely sent out to sea, due to the practice being cost prohibitive. This makes it very unlikely that ships that were set sail with fiery arrows alighting them from the shore.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><p dir="ltr"><span>Archaeologists recently discovered an ancient burial site in Norway that demonstrates how the most wealthy of the society were memorialized.&#160; The ancient burial site on the shores of the </span><span>fjord </span><span>near Oslo, Norway includes remains of an especially large hall more than 120 feet long that were likely used for feasts, religious, and political gatherings. The structure demonstrates an attempt to establish dominance during a period when control of territory went back and forth between dynastic families. It seems that &#8220;ostentatious burial rituals&#8221; were conducted there as indicated by a burial mound about 30 feet high and nearly 100 by nearly 80 yards, which was created between the fifth and sixth centuries CE.</span></p><p><b><br></b></p><h3 dir="ltr"><span><span></span></span></h3><h4 dir="ltr"><span>Sources:&#160;</span></h4><ul><li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation"><a href="https://news.artnet.com/art-world/norway-ship-burial-site-1923040"><span>https://news.artnet.com/art-world/norway-ship-burial-site-1923040</span></a><span>&#160;</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation"><a href="https://sciencenorway.no/archaeology-bronze-age-ships/was-there-a-viking-age-in-norway--2000-years-before-the-vikings/1698522"><span>https://sciencenorway.no/archaeology-bronze-age-ships/was-there-a-viking-age-in-norway--2000-years-before-the-vikings/1698522</span></a><span>&#160;&#160;&#160;</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation"><a href="https://www.history.com/topics/exploration/vikings-history"><span>https://www.history.com/topics/exploration/vikings-history</span></a><span>&#160;&#160;&#160;</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation"><a href="https://www.history.com/news/how-did-the-vikings-honor-their-dead"><span>https://www.history.com/news/how-did-the-vikings-honor-their-dead</span></a><span>&#160;</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation"><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14726/14726-h/14726-h.htm"><span>https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14726/14726-h/14726-h.htm</span></a><span>&#160;</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation"><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/18947/18947-h/18947-h.htm"><span>https://www.gutenberg.org/files/18947/18947-h/18947-h.htm</span></a><span>&#160;</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation"><a href="https://norse-mythology.org/"><span>https://norse-mythology.org/</span></a><span>&#160;</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation"><a href="https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/lindisfarne-priory/History/viking-raid/"><span>https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/lindisfarne-priory/History/viking-raid/</span></a><span>&#160;</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation"><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Saga-of-the-Greenlanders"><span>https://www.britannica.com/topic/Saga-of-the-Greenlanders</span></a><span>&#160;</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation"><span>&#160;</span><a href="https://www.biography.com/explorer/erik-the-red"><span>https://www.biography.com/explorer/erik-the-red</span></a><span>&#160;</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation"><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17946/17946-h/17946-h.htm"><span>https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17946/17946-h/17946-h.htm</span></a><span>&#160;</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation"><a href="https://www.penfield.edu/webpages/jgiotto/onlinetextbook.cfm?subpage=1505054"><span>https://www.penfield.edu/webpages/jgiotto/onlinetextbook.cfm?subpage=1505054</span></a><span>&#160;</span></p></li></ul><p><br></p><p><font face="Arial"><br></font></p>